Theories of Art, Performance and Society in Aotearoa 5

Theories of Art, Performance and Society in Aotearoa 5 The next thesis to be discussed refers to Goffman as do many of the writers considered here. But the topic is real life rather than theatre. Emma West’s Manu is my Homegirl: Navigating the ethnic identity of the Maori adoptee is a Master of Philosophy thesis from Te Ara Poutama, AUT. The great value of this thesis is that it challenges a range of categories including, Maori, Pakeha and biculturalism. A person shifts from one identity or construction of such, to another depending on the context; ‘the common theme that emerged from this research is that placing the Maori identity in binary opposition to the Pakeha identity can create challenges and a sense of marginalisation for those who share both Maori and Pakeha heritages.’ West 2012: 120 It is important to note that Emma West is talking about a fairly small range of people, those involved in closed adoption as children. At the same time her thesis is a brilliant exposition of strategies to do with identity in Aotearoa, strategies that seem to this reviewer to be applicable or at least worth considering in terms of the subjects of other writers discussed here. Like Billy T James, Kiri Te Kanawa and Mika Emma West is herself an adoptee. As described by Hamilton above Mika’s situation seems to have been like Emma’s while Billy and Kiri were adopted within Maori society. Using an interview process West looks at how adoptees use or do not use such things as te reo, tikanga and kapa haka along with other things to find and express identity and how they perform in everyday life. West’s subjects may be contrasted with Greenwood’s in that where identities might be clearly defined in Panguru this is not the case for West’s group. Having said that some of the latter group do come from the countryside. One of the refreshing aspects of this thesis is the combination of Social Psychology and Sociology. This means references to Liu et alia (2005) for example, and shows the value of working in a cross disciplinary context at the AUT. West uses this wider disciplinary reach t to break new ground. As always with something original there is the sense that something previously familiar but just out of grasp has been explained in such a way as to allow new questions. One such new question might be what happens where tikanga is adopted in performance work and in ritual by non- Maori? In her paper discussed below Mazer raises such a situation in a coda to her paper where she describes a university function after the Christchurch earthquake. The function follows tikanga and te reo is used but here are few Maori present. This example might be better understood after a reading of West’s thesis. People have been adopted across ethnic groups and so, in Aotearoa- New Zealand, have rituals and language all with an effect on identity and its expression. But the new question most often asked by Emma West herself is to do with the world of identities experienced by the Maori person who has grown up in a closed adoption. How is a sense of self found and maintained in the arts and in language and in everyday life? At this point Hamilton’s work on Mika might be reconsidered. Is the reworking of martial arts as bodily display by Mika and Torotoro an exploration of identity? Is it a reaction to ascription or prescription of identity? West (2012: 84) cites Erikson in Santock (2007) and the suggestion that delinquency is an attempt to establish an identity, although negative. Without exploring gender identity to any great extent West does spend a lot of well warranted time on Verrier’s thesis of a primal wound (Verrier 1993) occurring through the absence of a mother. Is what Mika and Torotoro do on stage a grounding of such questions in the body and dance? And is such grounding in the body to do with the way identity has been developed in this country through face to face interaction and bodily interaction as in kapa haka? The questions that Ryan Hartigan who is discussed later in this series asks about the haka and its international significance might also be related to West’s thesis but the latter is, generally speaking, about the New Zealand context. Some reviews of literature by West yield very good results. This is done against the general background of the standard texts like Berger and Luckman (1966) and a consideration of the research on Maori identity such as work by Durie (1995). There is other work on identity that is not referenced by West. One thinks of Veronica Tawhai's work on rawaho (Tawhai 2010), people who do not have direct whakapapa links to the area in which they reside and who are rendered invisible in certain respects, say when it comes to making submissions on the environment. Tangata whenua come first. The value in considering Tawhai’s work here might be that it shows how identity questions exist for Maori who have adopted new places to live and for those Maori who were there first and who adopted others into their territory. There is a complex of identity, genealogy, residence and other matters that stretches across the country and is, in effect, the context for West’s research as it is for most of the other work discussed here. There is the feeling reading West that people live in a jumble of world views. The clear lines of thought described, say, by Merata Kawharu (Kawharu in Selby et alia ed 2010) or clear and deep rooted notions of, say, tapu and noa might well exist in the minds of other people but for West, and, arguably, a lot of people in Aotearoa- New Zealand there is a mish-mashing of strategic responses which are enacted to get by in social situations rather than to demonstrate comprehensive understanding. Survival is all. It is interesting that the idea of ‘navigating’ as put forward by Emma West is used elsewhere, in the Whanau Ora context for example. At the same time the sense of navigation applies across the literature discussed here although West is using it in a much more extensive way so that instead of assuming that parties are secure in their cultural identity the assumption seems to be that just In case that is not so there might often be a need for reflection and then navigation, sometimes in an instant.. The very idea that people need to navigate an identity is important and possibly under researched. Is the navigation process itself part of the identity? Emma West’s thesis makes a number of challenges. She suggests the possibility of a new tribal identity for adoptees (2012: 119). There are in fact various expressions of this idea. For example in Tuturu pumau meeting house in Palmerston North there is a pou in one corner that stands for people who don’t directly relate to other pou, the other pou being for specific waka and hapu. There is the Ratana idea of morehu, of remnants. But West may have a place between the binaries of Maori and Pakeha in mind. At one stage West suggests that the term Maori might well be reviewed in its uses; ‘During this research I had a curious reaction to the external factors defining Maori identity and I wanted to disestablish th word ‘Maori’ from the common vocabulary.’ 2012:119 While West does not refer to it there might be a cross reference to Cheryl Te Waerea Smith’s idea of a ‘cultural cage’ here (Smith in Murphy ed 1993). While there is mention of Alcoff and Mendieta (2003) and a discussion of modern identities in this thesis there might be a commentary to follow looking at the way key identities shift over time. Emma West looks at the shifts in identity in the latter half of the twentieth Century and the early part of this one with respect to distinctions internal to the country of Maori and Pakeha and in between. When and how people became preoccupied with ethnic identities over time is an important aspect to be researched, one that Emma West's thesis evokes. The work of Franz Fanon (1963) on the psychological aspects of decolonisation in North Africa comes to mind. West’s thesis is extremely important and goes beyond the world of the person involved in closed adoption. The perspectives Emma West offers might be used, say, in a discussion of the work on display at Ora Gallery in Wellington, in places of cultural multiplicity and extensive ‘borrowing’ if such it be called (cf Cleave 2012). The chord that is struck resoundingly with this reviewer is the need to flick in an instant from one conversational or interactional context to another without missing a beat, the need to be simultaneously at home in several surroundings at once or almost at once. This process of navigation, as West calls it, through kinds or layers of identity is familiar to say the least. There is something of an adrenalin vortex here. Chris Laidlaw talks of how coaches would use war talk to fire the All Blacks up. The opposing team was the enemy; each match was a battle, each series a campaign and so on (Laidlaw 1999: 21). One wonders how deep this goes in Aotearoa. A whole generation of leaders, teachers, managers and rank and file, Maori and Pakeha, came back and out of World War Two to sort things when required in Aotearoa and this included matters of identity. Fred ‘The Needle’ Allen as a Rugby coach was not an isolated case. War might be sport but sport might be life. Did West as a Maori adoptee in a closed adoption grow up at a time when lines were being drawn in a duality known as biculturalism but experienced by West as a kind of terror? Was the only way the society in Aotearoa knew how to handle this was through a kind of war talk in which she was caught up? If so then there is an edge to the sense in which the word ‘navigation’ is used. I have suggested above by way of reference to the work of Veronica Tawhai that this might be understood as a process of negotiation and navigation through different kinds of adoption. These kinds of adoption are understood in interaction as when, for example people from one iwi go to live in the district of another then the kawa of that district is adopted by all who live there. Or when a Pakeha speaks Maori then that person is adopting the ways and manners of Te Reo, te reo me ona ahuatanga. As we go about our lives in Aotearoa we might find ourselves, momentarily or for longer in the fa’a Samoa, in a world of tikanga, in the East, in a world of Mandarin or in a general world, a world that is something of a thin veneer, the Pakeha world. West is of course talking of a much more intense personal situation, one where Verrier’s thesis of the primal wound in the absence of the mother applies. There are also important considerations of shame and identity made by West and her work may be read alongside Ryan Hartigan’s description of embarrassment and the haka below. Bibliography Alcoff L, and Mendieta, E., 2003 Identities,: race, class, gender and nationality. Malden MA, : Blackwell Publishers Berger, P. L. and T. Luckmann 1966, The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, Garden City, NY: Anchor Books Chow, Rey 2006 ‘Sacrifice, mimesis and the theorizing of victimhood (A speculative essay)’, Representations 94: 131–49. Cleave, Peter 2012 Dance and Identity in Aotearoa and the World, Campus Press Durie, M. 1995 Te hoe Nuku Roa Framework. A Maori Identity Measure Journal of the Polynesian Society 104(4), 461-470 Fanon, Franz 1963 The Wretched of the Earth, Grove Press New York Hemmings, Clare. (2005) ‘Invoking affect: Cultural theory and the ontological turn’, Cultural Studies 19(5): 548–67. Iwanek, M (1997) Adoption in New Zealand – past, present, future. In Adoption and Healing: Proceedings of the international conference on Adoption and Healing (pp 66-67), Wellington, New Zealand Adoption, Education and Healing Trust. Jackson, Steven and Hokowhitu, Brendan (2002) ‘Sport, tribes and technology: The New Zealand All Blacks haka and the politics of identity’, Journal of Sport and Social Issues 26(2): 125–39. Laidlaw, Chris 1999 Rights of Passage: beyond the New Zealand Identity Crisis, Hodder, Moa, Beckett Liu, J., McCreanor, T and Teaiwa, T. (Eds) 2005 New Zealand Identities: Departures and destinations, Wellington, Victoria University Press Santock, J W 2007 Adolescence McGraw Hill Tawhai, Veronica M. H. 2010 'Rawaho: in and out of the environmental engagement loop', in Maori and the Environment: Kaitiaki, Ed Selby Moore and Mulholland, Huia Publishers Verrier, N (1993) The Primal Wound: Understanding the adopted child, Baltimore MD Gateway Press

Theories of Art, Performance and Society in Aotearoa 4

Theories of Art, Performance and Society in Aotearoa, 4. The winds of international change affect Aotearoa. The discussion of Janinka Greenwood’s work in the last section spoke of the sense of excitement here with the Treaty of Waitangi, biculturalism and other matters. That may have been echoed, bolstered by decolonisation, the civil rights movement feminism and other international movements. Our next theoretical position is, I would argue, a radical, local step. While gay rights had developed internationally, in parts of the globe at least, in the 1990s- Simon Napier-Bell’s book, Black Vinyl, White Powder of 2002 being a good explication of this in the British music scene- Mika and the thesis on him by Hamilton is as good a contribution to transvestite expression as might be found anywhere. Mark Hamilton’s Canterbury University doctoral thesis is Martial Dance Theatre: A Comparative Study of Torotoro Urban Māori Dance Crew (New Zealand) & Samudra Performing Arts (India). Hamilton’s thesis is an excellent discussion of the contribution made by Mika and Torotoro and the challenges faced by them. The discussion of haka and bodily display makes this thesis striking and in many respects original. The thesis looks at ‘martial arts theatre’s masculinist potential and its contribution to the intercultural negotiation of identities’. Torotoro was a dance company that operated from 2000 to 2009. It started with Mika HAKA in 2001 in Auckland. Who was or is Mika? Hamilton says; ‘The ironic distance evident in Mika’s self-presentation might be considered a consequence of him growing up as a flamboyant gay Māori boy in a suburban Pākehā family.Mika was adopted at birth by a Pākehā couple who lived in a predominantly Pākehā town. Till he was eighteen his principle contact with Māori culture was through representations of Māori targeted at non-Māori viewers – materials comparable to the Adidas advert discussed in the thesis’ introduction.12 Mika has not visited his birth father’s marae and he lives and works without a specific tribal affiliation. Mika stands outside of usual Māori hierarchies and has no elders to whom he is obliged to defer when creating his representations of Māori culture. This made him the sole authority under which Torotoro worked when performing Mika HAKA. On the one hand, Mika’s adoption separated him from marae life and tribal culture, but at the same time his dark skin invited people to identify him as Māori and not Pākehā. In addition, his homosexuality further distanced him from the heteronormative orders of both Māori and Pākehā society. Mika’s persona in Mika HAKA was the product of a twenty-year performing career that staged, and largely celebrated, his experiences of not belonging and of always being the Other. Mika HAKA invited Torotoro to join Mika in this project, and the creation of stage personae similarly keyed. Mika’s stage persona queers both his gender and ethnicity. He presents male and female, and Māori and non-Māori attributes.’ 2012: 111-112 Who were in Torotoro? ‘Certainly, the company’s processes of casting and performance were not guided by the particularities of tribal affiliation which Papesch identifies as the factor that authenticates kapa haka as a valid expression of Māori identity (Papesch 2006:37). Torotoro operated without tribal affiliation, uniting simply as ‘Māori’.’ 2012: 111-112 Hamilton is interested in looking closely at martial arts; ‘Indeed, the examples of contemporary martial dance theatre that this thesis explores might more accurately be called ‘martial arts dance theatre’. In part, performers in these productions present ‘as’ dance theatre the codified and ritualised movements that create the drills and displays intrinsic to their hereditary martial arts. This invites consideration of the ways in which these apparently combative disciplines might be considered always already aesthetic and expressive forms, and one task of this thesis is to elaborate new understandings of what the ‘martial arts’ are.’ Cf 2012: 1-30 In ‘Hongi’ Torotoro shifts back and forth between martial movements that prevent a challenge to their audience and dance movements that invite and welcome their gaze. Hamilton sees this as both confrontational and inviting; ‘The dancers’ minimal clothing might also be seen to contribute to the confrontational-inviting tone of their performance, for it displays their well-toned bodies in a way that might be seen underline their martial readiness but also to offer a potentially erotic spectacle. What is more, when a difference of ethnicity, or race, distinguishes the companies from their audiences this might be seen to contribute additional tensions and ambiguities to the bodily spectacle created in their martial dance theatre.’ 2012:13 There are juxtapositions of wero and haka and ‘the globalised form of breakdance’. The eye contact in Torotoro’s interaction with their audience seems at times imperious and at times compliant. Hamilton refers to Grotowski and Zavilli, to an ‘aesthetic inner bodymind’. This compares with Mazer’s discussion, considered below, of the rehearsals of Kapa Haka where she refers to a memorialisation of Maori matters, internalisation of identity through dance or as seen in dance. There are some extremely interesting things in this thesis such as the discussion of space, audience and internalisation; ‘Torotoro and Samudra’s martial dance theatre makes theatrical performance from the movements of the intimidation displays and pattern practices that are intrinsic to their Māori and Malayā i martial arts. Training in such activities initially requires practitioners to master combative movements in the fixed order and rhythmic and spatial arrangements prescribed by their teachers. Most significantly, like dance theatre performances, these intimidation displays and pattern practices are drilled while facing an empty space – a space later occupied in ritualised contexts and theatrical settings by witnesses and audiences with varying expertise about Māori and Malayāḷi martial arts. As such – advancing Klens-Bigman’s suggestion that kata are dramatic scenaria – Torotoro and Samudra’s incorporation of intimidation displays and pattern practices in their martial dance theatre creates martial ‘soliloquies’.’ 2012; 37 And then there are the possible reasons for the appeal of the show to overseas audiences outside of erotic or martial considerations; ‘Participating in Mika HAKA can be seen to have engaged Torotoro in a process of self-exoticisation, because the allure of their difference from non-Māori audiences was the principal focus of their martial dance theatre. Indeed, their martial dance theatre might be seen as the vehicle through which Mika endeavoured to teach them his use of self-exoticising and self-eroticising performance as a means of self-empowerment. In particular, Mika can be seen to have encouraged Torotoro to indulge Eurocentric erotic fantasies about exotic natives.’ cf2012: 30-50: Hamilton brings a good mix of local and international writing to bear on his subject; ‘In Pacific Performances Balme speaks of how traditional performance – especially that created for presentation to foreign audiences – often engages in a temporal ‘freezing’ which suggests that quintessence of the culture being staged is located in the past and not the present. Balme connects this phenomena to James Clifford’s “salvage paradigm,” through which certain schools of ethnography “desire to rescue ‘authenticity’ out of destructive historical change” (Balme 2007:186). Balme also considers how such cultural freezing might be seen as part of the ‘invention of tradition. .According to this thesis, varied in different nuances by MacCannell, Culler, Urry, and Frow, the condition of alienation constitutive of modernity [...] has bred as its antithesis the ‘invention of tradition’ and the increasing priority placed on authenticity in objects, peoples and places apparently located outside the realm of modernity (Balme 2007:187).’ 2012; 108 We are considering the equation or otherwise of contemporary society and dance. Hamilton points out that in When the Body Becomes All Eyes Zavilli notes that Kalarippayattu achieved its contemporary totemic value during the founding of the modern state of Kerala. Hamilton compares this to references to the writing of King and Walker about Te Puea and Ngata in the 1930s and talks about the connections between contemporary consciousness and performance (2012: 23). Coming back to space, stage and audience; ‘When the creation of Mika HAKA began he was performing sexually provocative solo cabaret at arts festivals in Australasia and the UK. Mika HAKA targeted the popular British market in a bid to change Mika’s international performance career from that of a queer artist addressing arthouse audiences to a main house performer addressing a general audience.’ 2012: 24 Hamilton is talking about a meshing of attractions and support for Mika from a variety of sources; ‘A representative of the late Māori Queen attended the debut of Mika HAKA, and The Ministries of Social Development and Māori Development supported Torotoro’s development. The UK tours were funded by Trade New Zealand – a government enterprise agency.performance might be seen to have created a work with an interracial exotic erotic appeal. MikaHAKA secured domestic support for its revised image of New Zealand’s bicultural identity while also engaging Eurocentric fantasies about native men. What might this dual appeal suggest about the persistence of imperialist values in New Zealand and the UK?’ 2012: 27 Hamilton refers to Brendon Hokowhitu and to Irving Goffman as he considers athletes and dancers, notably Goffman’s dancers and boxers and their ambiguities. This argument goes that boxers and tennis players do bodily display only on an incidental basis while dancers do it on an intentional basis. This may be a tad disingenuous when it comes to people like Sonny Bill Williams, the rugby star with the great body but in general the argument holds; sports people have to be good at their specific tasks regardless of looks. Hamilton sees wero and haka as in between and agues that Mika frames wero and haka in terms of bodily display, as something more than intimidation and more like dancing than boxing. On gender and performance; ‘It is pertinent here to acknowledge that this thesis’ focus on male dancers perpetuates the bias observed in contemporary martial dance theatre productions. Women perform in the genre, but they are outnumbered by the men and have limited roles: the genre’s focus is on the men’s performance. Mika HAKA largely duplicates the gender roles of kapa haka. During haka the women give centre stage to the men, but they are prominent in the lyrical action songs and poi items (dances with balls on string). When the company dances in unison the movement vocabulary is based on wero, haka and breaking, all idioms conventionally gendered as masculine. In search of commercial success Mika cast women in Mika HAKA to accommodate the gaze of male heterosexual audience members, but significantly the production features no male-female partner dances.’ 2012: 49 And then; ‘Moreover, the productions’ potential to affirm gender norms is destabilised when the women step aside and leave the men centre stage. The heterosexual male erotic gaze their presence invites may potentially fall on the men– highlighting the homoerotic potential of their performance, and the potential slippage from homosocial identification to homosexual desire that is present in martial dance theatre.’ 2012: 53 Intentionality runs right through all discussions of identity considered here. One thinks of Mazer’s earthquake function discussed below. Hamilton takes the reader from dance to race, to Butler, Lee and identity; ‘Butler’s theorising about performativity has informed analysis of ethnic and racial identity. In the 1999 preface to her book Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity Butler says:; ‘the question to ask is not whether the theory of performativity is transposable to race, but what happens to the theory of performativity when it tries to come to grips with race (Butler 1999:xvi).’ 2012: 39 In her 2001 journal article “Bodies, Revolutions, and Magic: Cultural Nationalism and Racial Fetishism” Josephine Lee adapts Butler’s theorising of gender as the legacy of sedimented acts to explore race as a comparable performative construct. Lee says: ‘The particular ways in which we perceive, interpret, and value racial difference in the United States today can be understood as a kind of ‘performance’ that takes its significance from not one but, in fact, many layers of social meaning, that history has deposited on bodies (Lee 2001:72).’ 2012: 40 Hamilton seems to be asking whether such representation of wero and haka renders it impotent and nostalgic. In a central part of his argument Hamilton refers to Goffman’s idea of keying. The example here is wero or haka where, as Hamilton sees it there is a rekeying involved. When wero is performed overseas there is a ‘keying that is tangential to this history of keying’. And then; ‘Mika HAKA is a rekeying of the theatrical staging of the wero and haka presented in kapa haka. Whereas kapa haka is seen to stage and preserve inherited Māori culture for Māori benefit, Mika HAKA maximises on the appeal of these martial practices for non-Māori Western audiences. In this way, Mika HAKA constructs sensational images of Māori men by elaborating upon three largely disavowed aspects of kapa haka: the presentation of Māori performers as Other to New Zealand’s European settlers; the use of cultural syncretism to create a performance that communicates across this stated cultural divide (and cultural differences within Māori society today); and the potentially (homo)erotic display of the male Māori body that is created by the haka. By exaggerating these aspects, Mika HAKA might be seen to expose how this traditional performance practice – and the martial masculinity it promotes – is a form of exotic-erotic mimetic capital shaped through intercultural interactions, rather than a spontaneous and unchanging expression of Māori indigenous identity.’ 2012: 30-34 Where there is instability and indeterminacy there might be ‘serial rekeying’. Following Goffman (1975: 159) the idea is that once keyed then rekeying might follow and ‘each subsequent rekeying would seem to require less work’. And then there is the ‘negative experience’ when you can’t find the key for what you are doing. (cf 2012:34) Hamilton then walks through a tour of Huizinga (1949) and play, Bateson (1972) and frames and writers like Schechner (1993) who prefers the idea of nets rather than frames. Hamilton asks some good questions. How do we give frames, keys or nets to Mika and Torororo? Best refers somewhere to play fighting and one wonders about distinctions between real fighting, play fighting and ritual. The ‘He tama, Tu tama’ skit in concert parties of the sixties and seventies where people did hand slapping, stop-start routines seemed to me, at least to be part o a light heated or light relief type of theatre. I have never seen that ‘camped up’ but it was a feature of concert party activity where irreverence and asides were expected. Anyhow, coming back to this thesis it seems that if you play with keys or frames long enough then you are playing with play itself and Hamilton turns again to Goffman (1975:57) on this. Is it like wrestling or boxing on television where once you start to make it entertainment the process goes on, more and more quickly? Hamilton talks about fictional bites in martial arts after Bateson (Bateson1972:182 cf Hamilton 2012:35).. There is a gap between action and intention and Hamilton says the ‘participants deliberately present the idealised ethnically specific masculinities that wero and haka might be seen to sustain. And so we have a ‘genre formed by the perception of the audience rather than the action of the performers’. Hamilton then takes us through a discussion of the identity of the self and the consideration of Butler here is fascinating; ‘self as arising through the performance construction of gender’. The idea here is that gender is constructed through repetitive performance (cf 2012: 30-39). At this point a wider set of questions occur about Hamilton’s work. Quite rightly Hamilton is talking about identity and dance. That is his thesis topic. But it brings things up short to ask whether identity is always found through the body. In the wero and haka examples that Hamilton is using this all goes back to two traditions both involving kapa haka. One is the tradition of performing for tourists coming out of Rotorua and the other is the tradition starting with Ngata and Te Puea of retaining their reo and tikanga through concert party work involving tours and participation in major state events like welcoming dignitaries. But since the late nineties there has been the Maori Radio and then television as ways to learn these things. There are books. There are Maori language classes. There is the Kohanga Reo. But for a period say from the 1930s until the late eighties dance and dance related activity, kapa haka wero, powhiri and the like were major vehicles of cultural and language transmission as they still are even though new vehicles like radio, television, the internet, books and the classroom have appeared. Dance as a key or critical vehicle for cultural retention in the absence of other strategies is not really considered by Hamilton or other writers in the set of readings discussed. I learnt Maori from people in the bush who did not do a lot of kapa haka until cultural festivals started in the early 1970s and even then some of the people I knew were a bit shy of it all. That was an exceptional situation though and most people wanting to learn Maori were victims of language loss with only the world of dance and performance to turn to through Kapa Haka and hui. There is an equation here of body and language, body and culture. People did not lean the reo by sitting at home and writing letters, they gathered in groups and got to know their language by singing it, chanting it and writing songs and chants for their groups to take on tour where they would hear others who had been through similar processes. So somehow in Aotearoa there had been a fusion of body, dance, group activity, language and culture and Mika and Torotoro performed in this context. And as part of this there are issues of vocabulary and Hamilton picks up on this; ‘In his monograph Haka! The Dance of a Noble People Tīmoti Kāretu (quoting haka exponents Ngāpō Wehi and Kīngi Īhaka) states: Without the word there is no haka and this is the one aspect of contemporary haka that needs attention [...] The language, which is fundamental to the issue, is becoming peripheral while the actions and movements, the peripheral elements, are becoming the prime focus (Kāretu 1993:83-4). Kāretu’s proposition is somewhat challenged by Nathan Mathews article “The Physicality of Maori Message Transmission,” which offers a detailed examination of the extensive movement vocabulary of haka and its expressive value (Mathews 2003). He argues that physicality should be attributed greater importance in the analysis of how haka communicates.’ 2012: 86 Group learning in through oral interaction developed at the same time as Kohanga Reo in the 1970s with the rakau method. Along with kappa haka work and hui a lot of the learning takes place in face to face interaction. Coming back to Mika and Torotoro, Hamilton suggests that their productions rekey wero and haka ‘in ways that emphasise their aesthetic and theatrical dimensions and their presentation of images of ideal men’. Hamilton quotes Dyer as he considers ‘doing’ and ‘looking’ as masculine and ‘displaying’ and ‘being seen’ as feminine. This is an analysis that stretches back to Berger and compares with Laura Mulvey’s work of 1989 (2012: 46-7). Importantly Hamilton notes the complexities in this as he quotes Thomas’ work of 1993 suggesting that men too are objectified through the gaze. Hamilton asks the question how their ‘doing’ of martial actions might have contained notions of the male dancer as a passive figure on display.’ 2012: 46-7 Hamilton follows a suggestion from Burt that male dancers disturb western gender norms. He refers to heteronormative Eurocentric masculinity and to drawing the homosocial back into the realm of desire. And then there is the use of break dance or breaking. There is the idea of an international alliance of non-white people for Maori and Pacifika people through breaking. (2012: 51). Hamilton quotes Balme and Grenblatt to the effect that there is always something familiar in the exotic (otherwise it would be too far away to register) and applies the idea of rekeying and new signs to that. There a tension between the too exotic ad the too easy. Balme talks of things being non-decodable and sets out a contrast between alterity and familiarity, savagery and aesthetics (cf 2012: 81). Along with this Hamiton refers to Torgovnick (1990:8) in regard to ‘primitivist tropes’. Through these discussions the notions of camp and of flirtation are interspersed. In an interesting discussion Hamiton compares the role of the kaea or leader of the wero and haka and the role of the b-boy of the breaking group in Torotoro’s work (2012: 51). There is something of a contradiction in the highly masculine actor in haka and wero and the idea of a female primitivist world following Torgovnick (1997:14). Are things already rekeyed, already queered even before Mika sets out his work? Torgovnick (1990: 18) sets out a contrast between the dangerous and violent and the mystical and spiritual in the primitivist world. Hamilton puts this as follows; ‘In the UK Mika HAKA and The Sound of Silence became disconnected from their homeland cultures. They became, to a degree, elemental spectacles of foreign male bodies. These productions in such contexts evoke essentialist primitivist tropes about the exotic figure of the ‘native’ man. The companies’ might be seen to indulge or subvert the imperialism implicit in these imaginings.’ 2012: 56, 76 Throughout this fascinating thesis Hamilton drops a number of questions or, rather, a lot of questions occur to the reader. Does Kapa Haka perpetuate indigeneity? Hamilton discusses Lee’s fetishes and makes one think about wero and haka as exported (2012: 52). There is the assumption in the thesis that that Te Matatini, compared to other activities is not commercial. But it is a big operation benefitting the host region involving Maori radio and television. There are the two histories, high and low of Rotorua and Ngaruawahia regarding kapa haka. Commodificatpon obviously occurs in Rotorua but there are other considerations such as the survival of culture and language. The contrast between Mika and Matatini is familiar. With Mika HAKA is there something of a low local culture working as high culture in Edinburgh? There is Tania Kopytko’s Breakdance as an identity marker in New Zealand and she suggests (1986:26) breakdance is a ‘readily available connection to an international Black identity’ (Hamilton 2012:86). Mika saw breaking as a way to break up traditional haka and wero for the Edinburgh audience. Breaking functioned as a cool bridge with street cred. And then there is a quote from Banes; ‘Banes says breaking involves: “using your body to publicly inscribe your identity on the surface of the city, to flaunt a unique personal style within a conversational format” (Banes 2004:14)’ 2012: 53 Hamilton proceeds from Banes to Balme and other theorists; ‘My analysis of Mika HAKA and The Sound of Silence asks how their rekeying of martial arts and dance forms, in particular in the UK, might create a sexualisation and commodification of the identities articulated by these corporeal styles. In his introduction to Looking Out: Perspectives on Dance and Criticism in a Multicultural World David Gere proposes the need for examination of “the aesthetics of transfer” – that is, the implications of the presentation of non-Western dance on proscenium theatre stages in the West. In his book Pacific Performances: Theatricality and Cross-Cultural Encounters in the South Seas, Christopher Balme’s analysis of intercultural performance determines some of the implications (also noted by Lee) involved in such “cross-cultural contacts” (Balme 2007:7).’ Cf 2012: 55 And on to primitivism where things are; ‘exempt “from the repression of sexuality and control of aggression” that constrain Western life (Torgovnick 1990:228). Moreover, the companies’ martial dance theatre interact with tropes that, says Torgovnick in her book Primitive Passions: Men, Women, and the Quest for Ecstasy, code the primitive as the feminine collective counterpart to masculine individualistic civilisation (Torgovnick 1997:14)? Their performances emphasise the “double valance” that identifies the primitive as “both violent and spiritual” (Torgovnick 1997:14).’ 2012: 56 It is probably important to consider eros and money at some stage. Hamilton only does this in passing but obviously Mika is in the zone of the male stripper, the world of clubs, pole dancers and so on; ‘Furthermore, Torotoro’s performance in Mika HAKA has a pronounced erotic potential, in that the dancers are deliberately costumed to display their athletic bodies in a titillating way, and they do so alongside Mika’s own overtly sexualised and queer performance. Torotoro’s martial dance theatre might be seen to theatricalise wero, haka and breaking to create a sexualised performance with a commercial value.’ Cf 2012: 48-50 And then there is the Other; ‘Contemporary Māori culture necessarily negotiates with the ethnically (and racially) determined Othering that the bicultural structure of New Zealand sustains.’ And on to identity; ‘As such, Māori identity is necessarily anchored to the period when European settlement began in particular. As such, though the kapa haka that Te Matatini promotes could be seen to promote a nativist Māori cause, it could also be seen to perpetuate notions of indigeneity that are in keeping with the neocolonial agenda of New Zealand’s government. Paradoxically, however, perhaps in doing so kapa haka successfully contributes to the Māori participation in New Zealand’s political discourse, in as much that Māori find their strongest voice when addressing the Pākehā establishment through a historicised identity.’ We might make connections between Mika and the sapeur- the dress conscious male out of Brazzaville- or the French flaneur or Tame Iti and his dress in court as well as his dance activity. Is the significance of Mika a look, an air, a ‘dress’ more than a matter of, say, wero, haka and breaking? There is a home and away aspect to the thesis where Hamilton considers the knowing local audience and the unknowing audience or the audience that okows something else. Tourism in its various shades runs through this. The audience in Edinburgh is as foreign as the tourists in Rotorua. Hamilton draws on Shennan (1984:5) to speak of Auguste de Sainson’s visit to New Zealand in the 1820s when he compared haka to a lovers’ contest and it was unclear to him whether the performers were celebrating victory or love (2012: 91). Hamlton refers to Solomon-Godeau and talks about an ephebe, an ambisexual figure. Moore (1988:33 talks about the’ codification of men via gay discourse enables a female erotic gaze. The phrase ‘ephebic cohort’ rings true (2012: 95). Hamilton draws a contrast between the historicized local tradition of haka and wero and suggests a vertical axis for this as compared to a horizontal axis for breaking stretching to a contemporary global situation. Hamilton turns to Belich’s four fold classification of Maori as Red, Brown, Black or White (2006:370). He talks about Papesch’s combination of Kapa Haka and tribal identity (2012:104). Through these and his own lenses Hamilton, at the end, sees Mika as exploring intercultural and intergender identity, playing to European fantasies of native ephebes. He suggests Kapa Haka rekeys a threat into a thrill. Mika is living in a ‘space of otherness’. A selection from Hamilton’s reading list is offered below. Here are some correspondences with that of Greenwood. Zarrilli and others are included by both in their bibliographies. Elsewhere (Cleave 2013) I have noted the quality of superviso that this thesis might have had but, of course at the end of the day the superb contribution that has been made is Mark Hamilton’s. As suggested at the beginning of this article it may be that Mark Hamilton is breaking new ground with this thesis. One would need to know the literature on transvestism thoroughly and I do not but the idea that the martial arts may be used to express the things that Hamilton speaks of in his discussion of Mika above seems original, Also, Hamilton brings together a set of analytical threads in a refreshing and sometimes exhilarating way. Recently a film called Matariki about a transvestite Pacific Islander who plays netball has appeared and it may be that Hamilton has provided theory for more than dance. Bibliography Allen, Matthew Harp. 1997. Rewriting the Script for South Indian Dance. TDR 41 (3):63-100. Anderson, Aaron D. 2001. Asian Martial Arts Cinema, Dance, and the Cultural Languages of Gender. Asian Journal of Communication 11 (2):58-78. Armstrong, Stephen. Cabaret Muscles in on the Act. The Times. 9 July 2006. [cited: 14 August 2010.] Balakrishnan, P. 1995. Kalarippayattu: The Ancient Martial Art of Kerala. Trivandrum: C.V. Govindankutty Nair Gurukkal. Bagenal, Flora. 2008. 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Theories of Art, Performance and Society in Aotearoa 3

Theories of Art, Performance and Society in Aotearoa 3 In the two earlier discussions in the Theories of Art and Society in Aotearoa series the work of Francis Pound and Martin Blythe, both from the 1990s and both, at least to an extent, out of Auckland were considered. Janinka Greenwood’s Griffith University doctoral thesis is titled Journeys into a Third Space A study of how theatre enables us to interpret the emergent space between cultures. This is a summary of thinking on biculturalism put together with an idea of a third space and, on this basis, an interpretation of dance and dance education in Panguru and elsewhere in Northland. Greenwood’s thesis is a very good review of the arts, the thinking and the mood of the late eighties and early nineties as well as very sound review of the literature. Janinka Greenwood talks of Arnold Wilson and Don Selwyn, of Ranginui Walker and Garfield Johnson (Greenwood 1999: 38-48), educators and polemicists of the ideology known as biculturalism. Writing for an Australia audience she contrasts biculturalism with multiculturalism. At the same time her subject of study, Te Mauri o Pakeaka is an educational arts programme that happened in Panguru and elsewhere in the North, an area where the Treaty of Waitangi is very important and where there is often only two cultures, Maori and Pakeha in the form of white farmers and storekeepers involved. The world Greenwwod describes is very like that of a recent film, The man who lost his head which is set in Northland and has the same clear distinction. Having said that the film features an Englishman rather than a person born and living locally. The clarity of a tight Maori and Pakeha community allows for a clear statement and reading of biculturalism and then a Third Cultural Space, an emergent cultural space, the space between Maori and Pakeha in Janinka Greenwood’s work. Early in the thesis (1999:22) Greenwood talks of a bricolage happening in the third space and this is, of course, reminiscent of Levi Strauss’ use of the term bricoleur although Claude Levi Strauss is not referred to in the thesis.. While Greenwood does not consider Francis Pound’s The Space Between of 1994 or Martin Blythe’s Naming the other- images of the Maori in New Zealand film and television. These are concerned with urban and national communities. A full reading of all three books is recommended along with Rangi Panoho in Headlands in 1992. And the various articles in this area in Illusions by authors like Pound and Blythe not mentioned by her might be read to gather a fuller understanding of writing in this area. At the same time Greenwood brings up local writing, especially that of Sebastian Black and others at Auckland University not mentioned as often as they might be elsewhere. Greenwood is talking about cultural understandings, educational policies and practices and what she sees as new formulations of aesthetic and semiotic frameworks. There is a lot of learning about theatre involved and it is interesting and refreshing to read about ‘process drama’ and ‘playwright theatre’, about ‘crystallization’ applied, inter alia to the arts and arts education in New Zealand schools. Greenwood also talks about ‘frame’ (1999:147). As well as the use of frame in teaching and exploring theatre and drama the thesis is about the frame of biculturalism. As she says in her conclusion; ‘By the time Pakeaka, the arts programme studied by Greenwood, was terminated, biculturalism had become a buzz-word among Pakeha liberals and was being critiqued by Maori activists as a mask for neo-colonialism’. As she considers her subject Greenwood talks variously of a sacred space and of ‘hot spots in the data’, contradictions and dissonances. Her definition of Pakeha is as designating non- Maori New Zealand identity. Greenwood (1999:44 also refers to ‘power culture’ as this term is used by O’Regan (1995) and ‘pale mainstream’ as used by Durie (1995). The thesis is interesting in its historical recollection, of things like Peter Boag’s distinction between ‘brownies‘and ‘pinkies’ (1999:50). Greenwood lays a sound foundation of reading for anyone interested in things on stage; Schechner, Heathcote and others are discussed to god effect (cf 1999:67, 105, 137). At the same time she provides an important and interesting spread of reading with references to anthropologists like Geertz (1988) (Greenwood 1999:43). And Greenwood’s report on a production of the Maui cycle could be read alongside the reflections of Tanemahuta Gray a decade or two later (cf Koowhiti, tekaharoa.com 2012) to give a good understanding of how the myth cycle might be presented and its meanings (1999: 56-7). Greenwood also reflects teaching styles and preferences of the day lining up Freire with the local indigenous theorists of Graham and Linda Smith and writers on the theatre and drama like Boal and his Theatre of the Oppressed of 1979 (1999:145). There is a mild strain of psychodrama in the thesis although Moreno is not heavily featured (cf 1999:69). Having the teacher as co-learner’ and ‘providing the student with the mantle of expert’ are key points of reference. Greenwood speaks of sacred space along with social coinage. The proto-drama of the work as a whole is a dramatic reframing of the existing social order, a rehearsal for change in the social domain. Coinage is also seen as an appropriate metaphor for the West with its emphasis on currency. Greenwood refers to the work of Maori Marsden to the effect that the material and the spiritual exist side by side (1999:109). With these thoughts as well as the business of co-teaching and co-learning in mind Greenwood says; ‘As well as the invitation to enter a sacred space, Pakeaka is a confrontation with what it means in empirical terms for the education system to serve the needs of Maori.’ And again; ‘What is claimed in the Pakeaka proto-drama is mana motuhake, right of control over one’s decision making or, to put it another way, a distinct voice.’ There are also the specifics of teaching in the North, especially the issue of teaching drama with and as an acknowledgement of culture. Greenwood refers to the people from Dargaville with their balalaikas, the Dalmatian influence, along with those from places like Pangaru with their koauau (1999: 48, 55, 75, 111). Greenwood brings us back to biculturalsim with a look at ‘two chair’ work in psychodrama and a series of references to the way Jean Genet sees the other in plays like The Balcony, the way that one sees oneself in the other, the idea of a dramatic mirror (1999:, 111, 135). This is a powerful dramatic tool that creates a split and then the eventual opportunity for healing and Greenwood leans into biculturalism with this idea along the way bringing in Freire and Boal. The splitting of monovision germinates the potency for change in the oppressor. While there is discomfort for the oppressor there might be growth for the oppressed. She refers to Greenwood 1984 for a discussion of this splitting and healing process (cf Greenwood 1999: 111-117). Greenwood makes the point that over ten years of its operation Pakeaka did not have a static form but some premises did remain constant. Things are brought up short by the Hawke Report of 1989 and the fiscal cuts and rationalisations made by the Education Department at that time. Greenwood’s discussion of Pakeaka considers role and self, experiential learning and culture, tradition, identity and borrowing as well as drama, safety, learning and risk. The two ideas of sacred space and social coinage are persevered with. Biculturalism rather than blending is the order preferred by Greenwood and her informants as well as in the writing she follows such as Orange, Durie, Walker and others. The general idea is that Pakeha are looking at Maori as the ‘unexpected stranger’ in their midst (1999: 132, 192-2000. Following Davis (1994) Greenwood notes that femaleness is marked and maleness is not. There is a consideration of Michael King’s writings on being Pakeha. As these readings are presented Greenwood affirms the active and influential power of theatre and notes that it is not simply involuntary and passively reflective. Greenwood talks about Boal, Soyinka and Schechner as she considers ritual, Moreno and Landy with regard to drama therapy, Turner and Handelman regarding social drama and talks about Brecht and others as well. She quotes Schechner (1993:20) to speak of four great spheres of performance; entertainment, healing, education and ritualising. These are ‘at play with one another’. Greenwood says; ‘Western theatre presumes its origins in ritual and non-western theatre is often described in terms of its continuing connection to ritual.’ Ritual can be seen as a balancing of social controls and as an alignment of humans in the cosmic order. Greenwood quotes Soyinka (1976: 38-41) and Turner (1988:25) talking about liminality and limbo as a threshold between secular and sacred (cf Greenwood 1999: 137). Greenwood provides a thorough- going investigation of this literature to see how it applies to biculturalism. She quotes Schechler (1993) to the effect that what will happen is; ‘…either the re-integration of the disturbed social group or the recognition and legitimation of the irreparable schism’ Greenwood also says; ‘The multifaceted, collaborative approach to pedagogy offered by drama has resonances with the issues raised by contemporary Maori educational theorists.’ And goes on to talk about a whanau or whole class approach or a poutama or staircasing. She again makes the connection between Maori theorists of her day and Boal and the theatre of the Oppressed and Freire as she sees theatre as a liberatory process. Greenwood talks of Landy’s taxonomy of roles and suggests that the use of roles has potential for healing through drama. Greenwood talks of frames and quotes Zarilli (1990:46) to say that the Western emphasis on mimesis and persona is not usefully transported to other cultures (cf 1999:246). Greenwood talks of consensus and confrontation. In her discussion of Stuart Devenie Greenwood talks of ‘Pakeha gatekeepers’. Devenie in an interview with her talks about how New Zealand actors are trained to do American- voice and body (1999: 160-164). There is the idea of the cultural space between Maori and Pakeha as being ‘terribly important to the integrity of both parts’. The idea is that this space between offers great joy, pain and danger. Greenwood says; ‘Like many others Don (Selwyn) considers that if we sort out the bicultural nature of our society ‘‘then the multiculturalism will take care of itself’’ ‘. There seems to be a fear of the melting pot; ‘The understanding of biculturalism offered by Pakeaka is categorically not one of cultural blending.’ Regarding the workshops in Panguru ‘it is Maori that is the unmarked norm. It is Pakeha values and practices that are characterised for difference.’ A thought from Greenwood that stays in the mind is; ‘Biculturalism is not a fixed space to which one might arrive. but rather a space for improvisation’. On the face of it Greenwood’s Third Space and Francis Pound’s he Space Between discussed earlier in this series would seem to have a lot in common. Pound is more critical. Martin Blythe, considered in the previous paper in his series has, in some respects, a more sophisticated and more finely tuned model. All of these writers are concerned as were many in the 1990s with the Other. Greenwood’s Bibliography shows her influences. Ranginui Walker has a prominence there. Feminist theory is also important in this mix as is Action Research and the thinking of Boal and Moreno. Greenwood’s is an educationalist’s approach and her references are internationally to Freire and localy to Linda Smith. There is a structure or a system of silences in New Zealand and this is sometimes difficult for outsiders. As noted above Greenwood does not mention Pound or Blyhe and nor do they mention her. It is such a small country that it is sometimes had to see how we avoid one another but it seems that we do… If Biculturalism could be said to have been given a fillip in 1975 with partial recognition by the Labour government of the Treaty of Waitangi and if, by contrast the decision of another Labour government in 2004 to reverse a High Court ruling on the foreshore and seabed and so form a cut-off point in the development of Biculturalism as Maori rights were disallowed then Greenwood work comes at the high point of Biculturalism, at a point when people believed. There may have been an excitement in the air around Greenwood as she researched in the early nineties and then wrote up in the late nineties. Greenwood’s Bibliography is important as a reflection of that excitement and its sources and a fair bit of it is listed below as a resource. These days as Treaty settlements tail off in 2013-14 at the latest and the effects of such settlements seems to be mixed. Like the involvement of Native Americans in casinos this is something of a lottery. As the foreshore and seabed legislation of 2011 comes into effect with its fragmentation of the iwi and a lack of a unified approach to Maori issues that excitement is not here and there is the sense of a mixed bag. It all seems a bit of a dream but Greenwood managed to capture that dream in a very good way, better, in many respects, than others writing at the time and since. Bibliography Anderson, Kathryn & Jack, Dana C. (1991) “Learning to Listen: Interviewing Techniques and Analyses” in Gluck, S & Patai, D. (eds) Women’s Words: The Feminist Practice of Oral History, Routledge, New York, p11-26 Anouilh, Jean (1966) The Collected Plays, Methuen, London Artaud, Antonin (1982) The Theatre and its Double, John Calder Ltd, London Ashton, Elaine (1995) An Introduction to Feminism and Theatre, Routledge, London & New York Aston, Elaine & Savona, George (1991) A Semiotics of Text and Performance, Routledge, London & New York Atkinson, Laurie (1984) “A Brief Chronology of Theatre in New Zealand”, Australasian Drama Studies, Vol 3, No 1, 1984, p5-13 Awatere Huata, Donna (1996) My Journey, Seaview Press, New Zealand Awatere, Donna (1984) Maori Sovereignty, Broadsheet, Auckland, Bakhtin, Mikhail (1986) The Dialogic Imagination, University of Texas Press, Austin Balme, Christopher (1996) “Between Separation and Integration: Intercultural strategies in contemporary Maori theatre,” in Pavis, Patrice (ed) The Intercultural Performance Reader, Routledge, London & New York, p179-187 Balme, Christopher (1990) “New Maori Theatre in New Zealand,” Australasian Drama Studies, No 15/16, 1990, p149-165 Barba, Eugenio (1995) The Paper Canoe, A Guide to Theatre Anthropology, Trans Richard Fowler, Routledge, London & New York Barthes, Roland (1968) Writing Degree Zero, Hill and Wang, New York Beatson, Peter & Beatson, Dianne (1994) The Arts in Aotearoa New Zealand, Massey University, Palmerston North Beckett, Samuel (1958) Endgame, Faber and Faber, London Belich, James (1996) Making Peoples: A History of the New Zealanders, Allen Lane, The Penguin Press, Auckland, New Zealand Bennett, Susan (1990) Theatre Audiences: A theory of production and reception, Routledge, London Benmayor, Rina (1991) “Testimony, Action Research, Empowerment: Puerto Rican Women and Popular Education” in Gluck, Sherna Berger & Patai, Daphne (eds) Women’s Words, Routledge, New York and London, p159-174 Bernstein, Basil (1971) Class, Codes and Control, Vol 1, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London Bhabha, Homi (1994) The Location of Culture, Routledge, London and New York Bhabha, Homi (1993) “Beyond the Pale: Art in the Age of Multicultural Translation” in Sussmann, Elisabeth (ed) 1993 Biennial Exhibition, Whitney Museum of American Art, New York Bhabha, Homi (1990a) “The Third Space” in Rutherford, Jonathan (ed) Identity: Community, Culture, Difference, Lawrence and Wishart, London, p207-221 Bhabha, Homi (ed) (1990b) Nation and Narration, Routledge, London and New York Bhabha, Homi (1994) ‘Of mimicry and man: The ambivalence of colonial discourse’, in The Location of Culture, London: Routledge. 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