Thursday March 10th
Environment Aotearoa 9 Co-governance
Co- management and Co-governance
Whatever solution is taken up by government regarding the foreshore and seabed there will probably be power sharing of some kind. The most desirable aspect for many iwi might be a form of co-governance or co-management.
A set of important elements of co-management arrangements are set out in a Local Government New Zealand publication entitled Co-management case studies involving local authorities and Maori (2007). These include the acknowledgement of iwi history and circumstances, common goals and objectives, strong leadership and the importance of planning.
When defining co-management the 2007 document says it describes decision-making processes where more than one party is involved in this process. There is a continuum from minimal involvement of an interested party to devolution of power to an interested party. At the lower end of the continuum the community is informed about decisions already made. This might progress to communication, consultation, co-operation and then the participation in advisory committees, management boards and finally in partnership or community control at the higher end of the continuum.
Some of the things that might be seen on a co-management continuum would be points of benefit for both parties, aspiration building processes, information sharing and partnership, testing and policing.
At the half way point there is, perhaps, communication involving the start of two way information exchange with local concerns beginning to enter management plans.
At all points on the continuum social capital is involved. A great deal of the discussion of social capital below is to do with co-governance but many of the arguments involved apply also to co-management and a high degree of social capital might be found at the level of shared responsibility, partnership or information sharing.
Putnam (1993) talks of social capital and the performance of public institutions. Yasao gives the following definition;
the institutionalised participation of citizens, such as through administrative evaluation, elections, information disclosure, omsbudsman systems and referenda systems at the local level comprises this medium for the physical materialisation of social capital.
Takao, Y 2006:2
A number of contributors have sought to refine the explanation of determinants for social capital formation. Fukuyama and Putnam see the origins of social capital in centuries of cultural evolution and both argue that government policies hardly contribute to social capital formation (Putnam 1993, Fukuyama, 1995). Others argue that social capital formation can be produced and accumulated in a rather short period of time to solve the problems of political and economic development (Fox 1994, Brown and Ashman 1996, Lowndes, Stoker, Pratchett, Leach and Wingfield 1998).
There are many examples of co-management and co-governance from around the world. The treaty system in Poland is one such example. The United Nations has had a strong interest in the area for some time as shown in the first case study discussed below to do with the importance of such leaders as mayors.
Peter Hall (1999, 2002:21-57) specifically emphasises the importance of government policies in influencing levels of social capital. In his view the case of post WWII Britain demonstrates that government policies which emphasised social policy and egalitarian education policy were able to maintain the level of existing social capital.
A key factor which would explain variation in stocks of social capital across localities and countries is the degree of both social inequality among citizens in the act of co-operation and political inequality among citizens in meeting public demand (Boix and Posner 1998: 688).
Part of social capital formation is the sharing of respect for differing world views and value systems. It is important that any consultative committee for co-management or co-governance recognises where the values and priorities of management varies from Maori to European world views and vice versa.
One example of social inequality and differing world view involves environmental risk due to erosion and pollution. Dymond and Shepherd (2006) suggest that 500 of 5000 farms in the Manawatu contribute nearly half of the sediment going into the Manawatu River. There are few Maori farm owners involved as the percentage of Maori farm ownership in the Manawatu generally is not high. This is comparable to Maori ownership of farms near the foreshore and seabed around the country.
In fact, Maori have little or no say in the farming community. It is also possible, given the earnings of farmers generally in this country to suggest that there are differences of a socio-economic kind between these farmers and the rest of the population including Maori.
With the differences above in mind co-governance or co-management of the water quality in the Manawatu River involves the management of the 500 farmers who discharge nearly half of the sediment into the river. Following the readings above, to do this effectively social capital would need to be created between Maori and the group of farmers involved in order for people to listen to one another.
Another way to look at this might be to suggest that the local council or some other quasi-governmental agency forms a bridge between the two groups. In some ways though this approach also involves social capital as all parties in such a serious matter need to know and trust one another.
It is also important when considering such examples as that of Dymond et alia above to suggest that the consultative committee on co-management note that strategies involve varying scientific views. The iwi have a scientific model.
The kind of environmental co-management sought by Maori must not only be defined in ecological or environmental terms. Co-management of the kind desired must also relate to indigenous cultures and the models and examples of government found in those cultures.
This might be taken to a higher plane. In the resource management context co-management involves the resource manager involving the community in decision making. In some situations this means sharing power and decision making with the community.
Co-management and co-governance may mean some sharing of responsibility for a resource between the resource manager and the community. It also involves drawing on a range of knowledge systems, including local knowledge to inform management and focussing on negotiation and consensus rather than adversarial approaches.
A recent study by a local bodies group (Local Government New Zealand, 2007) showed that in New Zealand twenty four percent of local authorities interpreted co-management on a spectrum of involvement. This includes a high level of control by Maori (for example where Maori have authority and control over a resource or have the ability to have a casting vote on a committee that manages the asset). Also included is the situation where an equal local authority/Maori level of control (for example where local authority and Maori jointly collaborate and assist with input into a local authority led process).
As well as these situations there is that where there is a low level of Maori involvement (for example where Maori are assured opportunities to input into a local authority process in what could be called enhanced consultation).
At the other extreme there is mention in the 2007 document of a Maori owned resource with local authority involvement in management. The case study of Lake Horowhenua discussed below might afford an example of this.
We need co-management in New Zealand as there are different cultures with different connections and responsibilities to the land. Conflicting world views also result in differing understandings of the level of participation and ownership.
It might be asked whether there is an existing framework in NZ for co-management? If not it might then be asked who might supply the methods or incentives to do so or how this might happen. Is this a question of local or national government? The questions raised above about social capital would seem to apply here and across the board in discussions of co-management and co-governance.
Closer to home than some of the field work undertaken by the commentators above is Tuvalu. This small Pacific island state is an interesting and important case. There are issues of self government and issues of environmental risk. The title of Michael Goldsmith’s work in this area is salutary; Theories of governance and Pacific microstates: The cautionary tale of Tuvalu (Goldsmith 2003a).
Goldsmith questions the popularity of governance frameworks in explaining development failures and proposing new models of development for Pacific states. Other work by Goldsmith on the use of terms like bi-culturalism and his cautionary thoughts on how terms like this can become different to their original meaning may apply to ‘co-governance’ and ‘co-management’(Goldsmith 2003b).
Regarding the last two terms, co-governance and co-management, the latter is a milder version of the former. At least that is the way it seems at first. Co-management though is a matter of exercising power clearly and effectively with another party and this is an exacting process. The devil, as they say, is in the detail.
With the theoretical points above in mind, next week a set of case studies in co-management and co-governance will be presented.
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Papers and Policy Documents
Local Authority Engagement with Maori, 2004, Local Government New Zealand publication
Co-management: case studies involving local authorities and Maori, 2007, Local Government New Zealand publication
Written by Peter Cleave
